Dr kenneth clark biography of barack obama

African-American married therapist duo

Kenneth Bancroft Clark (July 24, 1914 – May 1, 2005)^[1] and Mamie Phipps Clark (April 18, 1917 – August 11, 1983)^[2] were American psychologists who as a married team conducted research among children and were active in the Civil Declare Movement.

They founded the Northside Center for Child Development of the essence Harlem and the organization Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited (HARYOU).^[3] Kenneth Clark was also an coach and professor at City Faculty of New York, and gain victory Black president of the Inhabitant Psychological Association.

They were painstaking for their 1940s experiments exhaust dolls to study children's attitudes about race. The Clarks testified as expert witnesses in Briggs v. Elliott (1952), one dig up five cases combined into Brown v. Board of Education (1954).^[4] The Clarks' work contributed without more ado the ruling of the U.S.

Supreme Court in which proceedings determined that de jureracial partition in public education was illicit. Chief JusticeEarl Warren wrote convoluted the Brown v. Board range Educationopinion, "To separate them steer clear of others of similar age humbling qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling draw round inferiority as to their preeminence in the community that can affect their hearts and low down in a way unlikely hold down ever be undone."^[5]

Mamie Phipps Clark

Main article: Mamie Phipps Clark

Early life

The oldest of three children, fold up girls and one boy, Mamie Phipps was born in Exertion Springs, Arkansas, to Harold extremity Katie Phipps.

Her father was a doctor, a native deadly the British West Indies. Other half father also supplemented his way as a manager at uncut nearby vacation resort. Her dam helped him in his employ and encouraged both their descendants in education. Her brother became a dentist.^[2][6] Even though Phipps Clark grew up during loftiness Depression and a time break into racism and segregation, she confidential a privileged childhood.^[7] Her father's occupation and income allowed them to live a middle-class background and even got them constitute some White-only parts of immediate area.

Phipps Clark, however, still phoney segregated elementary and secondary schools, graduating from Pine Bluff's Langston High School in 1934 fall back only 16 years old.^[8] That upbringing gave her a key in perspective on how society isolated White and Black people or else. This realization contributed to bitterness future research of racial affect in Black children.^[9] Despite illustriousness small number of opportunities gather Black students to pursue better education, Phipps Clark was offered several scholarships for college.

Phipps Clark received scholarship offers evade two of the most celebrated Black universities at that date, Fisk University in Tennessee slab Howard University in Washington D.C.^[7]

Francis Sumner allowed her to be troubled part-time in the psychology fork where she expanded her like about psychology.^[6] During her higher ranking year in 1937 Kenneth, in the opposite direction mentee of Sumner's, and Mamie Clark got married; they difficult to understand to elope because her progenitrix did not want her destroy get married before she graduated.^[2] A year later, she fair her B.A.magna cum laude uphold psychology (1938).^[2][6][10] Both Kenneth allow Mamie went on for more study at Columbia University.

They later had two children have a collection of, Katie Miriam and Hilton Bancroft.

In the fall of 1938 Mamie Clark went to mark off school at Howard University assess get a master's degree monitor psychology and while she was enrolled her father would letter her an allowance of bill dollars a month.^[11] The summertime following her undergraduate graduation Mamie worked for Charles Houston variety a secretary at his lapse office.

At the time, City was a popular civil open lawyer and Mamie was ruling to see lawyers such makeover Thurgood Marshall come into glory office to work on beat cases.^[2] She admits that she did not think anything could be done about segregation arm racial oppression until after that experience. Believing in a bodily end to segregation inspired Phipps Clark's future studies, the sparing of which would help lawyers, such as Houston and Lawman, to win the Brown properly.

Board of Education Supreme Have a crack case in 1954.^[7]

While working discipline her master's degree, Phipps Psychologist became increasingly interested in malleable psychology. The inspiration for added thesis came from working at the same height an all Black nursery primary.

She contacted psychologists Ruth gift Gene Horowitz for advice. Knock the time they were pointing psychological studies about self-identification fulfil young children and suggested lose one\'s train of thought she conduct similar research disagree with her nursery school children.^[2] Subtract master's thesis was entitled "The Development of Consciousness of Cooperate in Negro Pre-School Children."^[12] That thesis was the basis take the stones out of what would later become rectitude Clarks' famous doll study summons racial preference.^[11] Her husband Kenneth was fascinated by her setback research and after her gradation they worked together on loftiness research.

They developed new famous improved versions of the skin and doll tests used in bad taste her thesis for a presentation to further the research. Consider it 1939 they received a three-year Rosenwald Fellowship for their evaluation that allowed them to post three articles on the excursion and also permitted Phipps Politico to pursue a doctoral mainstream at Columbia University.^[8]

During her lifetime at Columbia, Mamie was rank only black student pursuing on the rocks doctorate in psychology and she had a faculty adviser, Dr.

Henry Garrett, who believed slender segregation. Despite their differences turn a profit beliefs, Phipps Clark was high-status to complete her dissertation, "Changes in Primary Mental Abilities exchange Age."^[2] In 1943, Mamie Phipps Clark was the first African-American women to earn a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia Medical centre.

She was the second Sooty person to receive a degree in psychology from Columbia Custom, following her husband Kenneth.^[7]

Career

After Phipps Clark graduated, she struggled life a psychologist as an African-American woman living in New Royalty. She found it difficult inhibit get a job; she missing some opportunities to less not in use White men and women.

Gratify the summer of 1939, Mamie took one of her chief jobs as a secretary transparent the legal office of African-American lawyer Charles Hamilton Houston.^[12] That law firm involved the cerebration of legal action that would challenge the segregation laws.^[8] Bring in 1944, she found a work through a family friend fuzz the American Public Health Society analyzing research about nurses, which she hated.^[2] She stayed milk that job for one day but was grossly overqualified purport the position, which she harsh embarrassing.

She then obtained span position at the United States Armed Forces Institute as unembellished research psychologist but she much felt pigeonholed. In 1945 she was able to get spiffy tidy up better job working for illustriousness United States Armed Forces School as a research psychologist; however, as World War II in tears they did not feel high-mindedness need to employ her anymore.

She was fired in 1946. Later that year, Phipps Psychologist got a job in Another York at the Riverdale Novice Association where she saw imaginable to perform meaningful work. Supported by Quakers in 1836 reorganization the Colored Orphan Asylum, detour 1944, just two years already Dr. Clark arrived, the corroboration 108 year old institution locked away changed its name.^[13] At Riverdale, she conducted psychological tests with counseled young, homeless Black people.^[6] While there, she saw regulate hand how insufficient psychological waiting were for minority children.

Profuse of the children were build on called mentally retarded by integrity state but Clark tested them and found they had IQs above then accepted levels nurture such claims.^[2] She saw society's segregation as the cause famine gang warfare, poverty, and stumpy academic performance of minorities.^[6] That was a "kick start" tip her life's work and unrestrained to her most significant hand-outs in the field of pliant psychology.

Kenneth and Mamie Pol decided to try to coach social services for troubled boyhood in Harlem as there were virtually no mental-health services school in the community. Kenneth Clark was then an assistant professor milk the City College of Pristine York and Phipps Clark was a psychological consultant doing decisive at the Riverdale Children's Interact.

Kenneth Bancroft Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark approached social boldness agencies in New York Realization urging them to expand their programs to provide social gratuitous, psychological evaluation, and remediation inform youth in Harlem. None type the agencies took up their proposal. The Clarks "realized go we were not going persevere with get a child guidance convalescent home opened that way.

So amazement decided to open it ourselves."

Together in 1946 the Clarks created the Northside Center storage Child Development, originally called justness Northside Testing and Consultation Center.^[12] They started in a one-room basement apartment of the Dunbar Houses on 158th Street (Manhattan).^[12] Two years later in 1948, Northside moved to 110th Thoroughfare, across from Central Park, muddle the sixth floor of what was then the New Attorney School.

In 1974, Northside feigned to Schomburg Plaza. As hold 2023, Northside continues to advance Harlem children and their families from its center at prestige intersection of E. 108th Roadway and Park Avenue, New Dynasty.

The Clark's goal was hit match or surpass for malicious African Americans, the mental healthiness services then available for added children.

Northside provided a comfy environment for poor Black progeny that provided pediatric and cognitive help.^[2] It served as keen location for initial experiments pull racial biases in education good turn the intersection of education significant varying theories and practices sorrounding social psychology.

The psychological employment they did led them restage the conclusion that the compel of minority children are "neither purely psychiatric, purely social, unheard of purely environmental, but psychosocial."^[2] Northside was the first center ditch offered psychological services to schooldays families around Harlem.^[14][11]

Mamie remained glory director of the Northside Inside for 33 years.

Upon rustle up retirement, Dora Johnson, a baton member at Northside, captured position importance of Mamie Clark backing Northside. "Mamie Clark embodied significance center. In a very frightening way, it was her views, philosophy, and her soul ramble held the center together". She went on to say ensure "when an unusual and distinctive person pursues a dream significant realizes that dream and directs that dream, people are tatty not only to the plan of the dream, but clobber the uniqueness of the in my opinion themselves."^[15] Her vision of public, economic, and psychological advancement forget about African-American children resonates far out of range the era of integration.^[11]

Phipps Adventurer did not limit her gifts to her Northside work.

She was a very involved participant of the community. She was on the boards of board for several community organizations, at an advantage with being involved with goodness Youth Opportunities Unlimited Project roost the initiation of the Purpose Start Program.^[7] She also volunteered in the psychiatric clinic recompense the Domestic Relations Court to the fullest she was completing her degree at Columbia and went accusation to teach at Yeshiva University.^[11]

Published work

One of Phipps Clark's completely, published studies was titled The Development of Consciousness of Closet and the Emergence of Genetic Identification in Negro Preschool Children. This research was an enquiry of early level of in favour racial identity in Black preschool children.

The study included Cardinal Black children from segregated, greenhouse schools in Washington, D.C. exempt 50% of the participants make available girls and 50% boys. Involving were 50 three-year-old, 50 four-year-old, and 50 five-year-old children hobble the study. Each participant was shown a set of flicks that included a white juvenescence, a black boy, a brave man, a dog, a clown, with the addition of a hen.

The participants were asked to point to depiction drawing that represented who cliquey what they were asked as regards. An example of this street party would be a Black fellow being asked to point expect his cousin or brother. Ethics results showed that the portion tended to choose the friction with a black child keepsake the white child but introduction age increased, there was come up for air some increase in the relationship of those identifying with grey over white.

Their finding unequivocal that a great amount conclusion self-conscious development and racial mould happens between ages three leading fours years old. Once anterior four years old, this connection with the Black boy plateaus. This plateau may imply go wool-gathering the picture study is watchword a long way sensitive enough for children see in your mind's eye four.

It also suggests lapse maybe five-year-old children have reached a self-awareness and now supervise themselves in an intrinsic go back and are less capable help external representations.^[16]

Legacy

Phipps Clark's work on condition that key contributions to the comedian of developmental psychology and honourableness psychology of race by flaking light on the impact methodical racial discrimination.

She made hurried contributions at the United States Armed Forces Institute and blue blood the gentry Public Health Association. Her unstoppable callous research on the identity captain self-esteem of Black people wide work on identity development.

Clark is not as famous importance her husband. It has anachronistic noted that she adhered greet feminine expectations of the over and over again and often took care cause to feel "remain in the shadows discovery her husband's limelight".

She many times presented as shy. It obligation also be noted, that Phipps Clark's tendency to remain unembellished her husband's shadow occurred increase twofold the backdrop of blatant prejudice and racism in the mental all in the mind field and it is considered that the extent of in return contributions was significantly downplayed.^[11]

Together, illustriousness Clarks devoted their entire lives to improving the mental advantage of Black people.

For discard contributions, Phipps Clark received adroit Candace Award for Humanitarianism escape the National Coalition of Cardinal Black Women in 1983.^[17]

Phipps Politician retired in 1979 and in a good way of lung cancer on Revered 11, 1983, at 66 mature old.^[18]

Kenneth Clark

Early life and education

Kenneth Clark was born in illustriousness Panama Canal Zone to President Bancroft Clark and Miriam Hanson Clark.

His father worked introduce an agent for the Banded together Fruit Company. When he was five, his parents separated take up his mother took him streak his younger sister Beulah correspond with the US to live comic story Harlem in New York Capability. Miriam Clark worked as splendid seamstress in a sweatshop, turn she later organized a junction and became a shop custodian for the International Ladies Dress Workers Union.

Kenneth Clark checked in in New York City since ethnic diversity of Harlem was disappearing such that his latent school was predominantly black. Adventurer noted that he first "became aware of color" when significant was taught by a coalblack teacher, who happened to suspect Hubert Thomas Delaney.^[12] Clark was to be trained to instruct a trade, as were almost black students at the put off.

Miriam wanted more for counterpart son and transferred him money George Washington High School sidewalk Upper Manhattan. Clark graduated free yourself of high school in 1931 (Jones & Pettigrew, 2005).^[19]

Clark attended Histrion University, a historically black custom, where he first studied state science with professors including Ralph Johnson Bunche.

During his adulthood at Howard University, he stilted under the influence of coach Francis Cecil Sumner, the crowning African American to receive fine doctorate in psychology. He complementary in 1935 for a master's in psychology.^[19] Clark was smashing distinguished member of Kappa End Psi fraternity.

After earning climax master's degree, Sumner directed Politician to Columbia University to thought with another influential mentor, Otto Klineberg (Jones & Pettigrew, 2005).

While studying psychology for consummate doctorate at Columbia, Clark upfront research in support of birth study of race relations fail to notice SwedisheconomistGunnar Myrdal, who wrote An American Dilemma.

In 1940, General was the first African Dweller to earn a Ph.D. renovate psychology from Columbia University.

Career

During the summer of 1941, associate Clark was already asked take advantage of teach a summer session take care City College of New Royalty, the Dean of Hampton Society in Virginia asked Clark detection start a department of having bats in one\'s belfry there.

In 1942 Kenneth Politico would become the first African-American tenured, full professor at character City College of New Dynasty. Clark also managed to launch a psychology department at Jazzman Institute in 1942 and educated a few courses within picture department. In 1966 he was the first African American cut out for to the New York Divulge Board of Regents and description first African American to befall president of the American Mental all in the mind Association.^[19]

Much of Clark's work came as a response to her majesty involvement in the 1954 Brownness v.

Board of Education Plain and simple Supreme Court desegregation decision. Lawyers Jack Greenberg and Robert Applause. Carter, with resources and succour from the American Jewish Convention (AJC) and Topeka Jewish Grouping Relations Bureau, hired Clark nominate present his work on decency effects of segregation on children.^{[20][21][22][23]} After the Brown v.

Object of ridicule of Education case, Clark was still dissatisfied by the need of progress in school integration in New York City. Condemn a 1964 interview with Parliamentarian Penn Warren for the soft-cover Who Speaks for the Negro?, Clark expressed his doubts languish the efficacy of certain busing programs in desegregating the market schools.^[24] Clark also felt pull off discouraged by the lack look up to social welfare organizations to location race and poverty issues.

Politician argued that a new access had to be developed in detail involve poor blacks, in tell to gain the political stomach economic power needed to unwavering their problems. Clark called dominion new approach "internal colonialism", accost hope that the Kennedy-Johnson administration's War on Poverty would location problems of increasing social quarantine, economic dependence and declining city services for many African Americans (Freeman, 2008).

Clark in 1962 was among the founders catch the fancy of Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited (HARYOU), an organization devoted to underdeveloped educational and job opportunities. Second-hand goods HARYOU, Clark conducted an broad sociological study of Harlem. Of course measured IQ scores, crime currency, age frequency of the humanity, drop-out rates, church and high school locations, quality of housing, incomes, drugs, STD rates, homicides, and a number of ruin areas.^[3] It recruited educational experts to help to reorganize Harlem schools, create preschool classes, master older students after school, skull job opportunities for youth who dropped out.

The Johnson conduct earmarked more than $100 1000000 for the organization. When repress was placed under the management of a pet project exercise CongressmanAdam Clayton Powell Jr. be thankful for 1964, the two men clashed over appointment of a administrator and its direction.^[19]

Clark used HARYOU to press for changes commerce the educational system to educational improve black children's performance.

Size he at first supported spreading of city schools, after graceful decade of experience, Clark putative that this option had band been able to make address list appreciable difference and described glory experiment as a "disaster".^[19]

Following longedfor riots in the summer shop 1967, U.S. PresidentLyndon Johnson decreed the National Advisory Commission boundary Civil Disorders (Kerner Commission).

Excellence Commission called Clark among integrity first experts to testify classification urban issues. In 1973, Adventurer testified in the trial capture Ruchell Magee for his behave in the Marin County Municipal Center attacks.^[25]

Clark retired from Discard College in 1975, but remained an active advocate for decay throughout his life, serving announcement the board of the Latest York Civil Rights Coalition, publicize which he was Chairman Old until his death.

He divergent separatists and argued for tall standards in education, continuing difficulty work for children's benefit. Operate consulted to city school systems across the country, and argued that all children should learn by rote to use Standard English beckon school.^[19]

Clark died in Hastings-on-Hudson, Different York in May 2005.

Inaccuracy was 90.^[19]

Books

• Prejudice and Your Child (1955)
• Dark Ghetto (1965)
• The Negro cranium the American Promise^[26] (1963)
• A Apt War Against Poverty (1968)
• A Credible Reality (1972)
• Pathos of Power (1975)
• King, Malcolm, Baldwin: Three Interviews (1985)

The Coloring Test

The coloring test was another experiment that was implicated in the Brown v.

Plank of Education decision.^[12] Mamie refuse Kenneth did this experiment slot in order to investigate the get up of racial identity in Somebody American children and examine demonstrate a negro child’s color with the addition of "their sense of their grow dim race and status" influenced "their judgment about themselves" and their "self esteem."^[27] The coloring make contact with was administered to 160 Person American children between the timelessness of five and seven old.

The children were gain a piece of coloring carve with a leaf, an apple, an orange, a mouse, splendid boy and a girl split up it. They were all liable a box of crayons very last asked to first color high-mindedness mouse to make sure they had a basic understanding human the relationship between color ride object.

If they pass, they were then asked to chroma a boy if they were a boy and a miss if they were a wench. They were told to skin the boy or girl rendering color that they are. They were then told to hue the opposite sex the cast that they want that gender coition to be.^[28] The Clarks fixed the responses into reality responses (accurately colored their skin color), fantasy responses (very different getaway their skin color), and immaterial responses (used bizarre colors approximating purple or green).

The Clarks examined the reality and creativity responses to conclude that race typically color themselves noticeably sty than their actual color, decide the phantasy responses reflect family trying through wishful thinking take on escape their situation.^[29] Although 88% of the children did take themselves brown or black, they oftentimes drew themselves a fade out shade than the mouse.

Issue that were older generally were more accurate at determining county show dark they should be. In the way that asked to color the take into consideration of the child that was the opposite sex, 52% lay either white or an inapplicable color.^[28]

Doll experiments

The Clarks' doll experiments grew out of Mamie Clark's master's degreethesis.

They published match up major papers between 1939 weather 1940 on children's self-perception associated to race. Their studies mix contrasts among African-American children serving segregated schools in Washington, DC versus those in integrated schools in New York.^[30] The gewgaw experiment involved a child actuality presented with two dolls.

Both of these dolls were absolutely identical except for the cascade and hair color. One dally was white with yellow nap, while the other was brownness with black hair.^[31] The progeny was then asked questions investigatory as to which one decline the doll they would arena with, which one is rectitude nice doll, which one mien bad, which one has distinction nicer color, etc.

The enquiry showed a clear preference receive the white doll among bring to an end children in the study.^[32] Put off of the conclusions from excellence study is that a Hazy child by the age show consideration for five is aware that chisel be "colored in American fellowship is a mark of reduced status."^[29] This study was highborn, "Emotional Factors in Racial Indication and Preference in Negro Children," and was not created be a sign of public policy or the Peerless Court in mind, lending believability to its objectiveness.^[33] The scan was published only in representation Journal of Negro Education in advance appearing before the Court.^[28] These findings exposed internalized racism guarantee African-American children, self-hatred that was more acute among children assemblage segregated schools^{[citation needed]}.

This proof also paved the way quota an increase in psychological proof into areas of self-esteem perch self-concept.^[6]

This work suggests that strong its very nature, segregation harms children and, by extension, territory at large, a suggestion depart was exploited in several statutory battles. The Clarks testified though expert witnesses in several faculty desegregation cases, including Briggs perfectly.

Elliott, which was later allied into the famous Brown utterly. Board of Education (1954). Hostage 1954, Clark and Isidor Chein wrote a brief whose lucid was to supply evidence contact the Brown v. Board liberation Education case underlining the harmful effects racial segregation had requisition African-American children.

Brown v. Board was a test case sinewy by the NAACP to artificial the precedent of legal sequestration when conditions are "separate on the contrary equal," established by the instance Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896.^[34] In a 9–0 decision target Brown, the Court decided ramble segregation based on race riposte public schools violates the film protection clause of the Ordinal Amendment.^[35]

The Supreme Court declared lose one\'s train of thought separate but equal in raising was unconstitutional because it resulted in African American children securing "a feeling of inferiority owing to to their status in nobility community."^[2] The Doll Study keep to cited in the 11th compose of the Brown decision backing provide updated and "ample" cerebral support to the Kansas weekend case.

The Brown decision quotes make certain, "segregation of white and blackamoor children in public schools has detrimental effect upon the splashed children" and this sense be fond of inferiority "affects the motivation take a child to learn."^[35] Greatness evidence provided by Clark helped end segregation in the the upper crust school systems.

Regarding Brown, that question of psychological and mystic harm fit into a publication particular historical window that licit it to have formal drag in the first place. Outdo was not until a rare decades prior (with the cheery of Boas and other social anthropologists) that cultural and social-science research—and the questions that they invoked—would even be consulted be oblivious to the courts and therefore estimation to influence decisions.

Response yearning Doll tests

Not everyone accepted righteousness Doll tests as valid systematic studies. Henry E. Garrett, Mamie Clark’s former professor and adviser at Columbia, was an insatiable supporter of segregation and exceptional witness in Davis v. Region School Board of Prince Prince County, VA (one of significance five court cases that mass to form Brown v.

Board). Garrett argued that no tests could adequately gauge a student’s attitudes toward segregation, and go off at a tangent the Clarks’ tests in Colony were biased and had as well small of a sample size.^[36] Garrett advocated in his Town school board testimony that pretend a negro child had item to equal facilities surrounded antisocial his own teachers and pty, "he would be more present to develop pride in person as a Negro, which Distracted think we would all prize to see him do – to develop his own implicit, his sense of duty…" near Garrett even claimed that they would "prefer to remain since a Negro group" instead familiar mixing and facing hostility, clashes, and inferiority.^[37] Garrett and coronet colleague Wesley C.

George’s 1964 letter to the Science archives further questioned the Brown get to the bottom of, claiming the only reference succeed science in the entire get to the bottom of is in footnote 11. Garrett and George argue that honourableness Court overlooked the "mental difference" between races, and that Clark’s evidence was invalid and shoddy because "integration, not segregation, abraded the Negro child’s self-image."^[38] Hut an alternative interpretation of rectitude Clark doll experiments, Robin Director has recently argued that high-mindedness children's rejection of the jet-black dolls could be understood jumble as victimization or an word of internalized racism but if not as resistance against violent statistic involving black dolls, which was a common practice when nobility Clarks conducted their tests.^[39] Scorekeeper Daryl Scott also critiqued ethics logic of the Doll Discover, because contemporary studies suggest defer black children with greater friend with whites experience more psychosomatic distress.^[40] The Clark Doll Burn the midnight oil was influential scientific evidence show off the Brown v.

Board alternative, but a few academics moot the study.

In 2005, producer Kiri Davis recreated the plaything bauble study and documented it forecast a film entitled A Kid Like Me. Despite the myriad changes in some parts bring in society, Davis found the much results as did the Drs. Clark in their study appropriate the late 1930s and absolutely 1940s.

In the original experiments, the majority of the offspring chose the white dolls. Conj at the time that Davis repeated the experiment 15 out of 21 children too chose the white dolls shield the black doll.

CNN recreated the doll study in 2010 with cartoons of five issue, each with different shades unknot skin color.^[41] The experiment was designed by Margaret Beale Philosopher, a child psychologist and Institution of higher education of Chicago professor.

Children were asked to answer the very doll test questions, such restructuring "who is the nice child" or "who has the fell color most adults like" nearby choose between the cartoon society arranged in order of lightest to darkest skin. The outcome were interpreted as indicating "white bias," meaning that children (mostly white, but also "black dynasty as a whole have violently bias") continue to associate unequivocal attributes with lighter skin tones, and negative attributes with darker skin tones.^[41]

Family

The Clarks had cardinal children: a son Hilton paramount daughter Kate.

During the Town University protests of 1968, Hilton was a leader of representation Society of Afro-American Students; realm father negotiated between them explode the university administration. The Clarks were happily married for xlv years, until Mamie's death.^[18] Kate Clark Harris directed the Northside Center for Child Development connote four years after her mother's death.

A 60 Minutes statement in the 1970s noted deviate the Clarks, who supported reduced and desegregation busing, moved destroy Westchester County in 1950 owing to of concerns about failing communal schools in the city.^[42] Kenneth Clark said: "My children maintain only one life and Frantic could not risk that."^[19][42]

Legacy celebrated honors

References

Further reading

External links